NASA’s InSight Finds Marsquakes From Meteoroids Go Deeper Than Expected

Jet Propulsion Laboratory https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/

With help from AI, scientists discovered a fresh crater made by an impact that shook material as deep as the Red Planet’s mantle.

A camera on the robotic arm of NASA’s InSight captured the lander setting down its Wind and Thermal Shield on Feb. 2, 2019. The shield covered InSight’s seismometer, which captured data from more than 1,300 marsquakes over the lander’s four-year mission.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Telescopes Get Extraordinary View of Milky Way's Black Hole

Find out how scientists captured the first image of Sagittarius A*, why it's important, and how to turn it into a learning opportunity for students. Our home galaxy, the Milky Way, has a supermassive black hole at its center, but we’ve never actually seen it – until now. The Event Horizon Telescope, funded by the National Science Foundation, has released the first image of our galactic black hole, Sagittarius A* (pronounced “Sagittarius A-star” and abbreviated Sgr A*). Read on to find out how the image was acquired and learn more about black holes and Sagittarius A*. Then, explore resources to engage learners in the exciting topic of black holes. How Black Holes Work A black hole is a location in space with a gravitational pull so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape it. A black hole’s outer edge, called its event horizon, defines the spherical boundary where the velocity needed to escape exceeds the speed of light. Matter and radiation fall in, but they can’t get out. Because not even light can escape, a black hole is literally black. Contrary to their name’s implication, black holes are not empty. In fact, a black hole contains a great amount of matter packed into a relatively small space. Black holes come in various sizes and can exist throughout space. We can surmise a lot about the origin of black holes from their size. Scientists know how some types of black holes form, yet the formation of others is a mystery. There are three different types of black holes, categorized by their size: stellar-mass, intermediate-mass, and supermassive black holes. Stellar-mass black holes are found throughout our Milky Way galaxy and have masses less than about 100 times that of our Sun. They comprise one of the possible endpoints of the lives of high-mass stars. Stars are fueled by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen, which forms helium and other elements deep in their interiors. The outflow of energy from the central regions of the star provides the pressure necessary to keep the star from collapsing under its own weight. This illustration shows a binary system containing a stellar-mass black hole called IGR J17091-3624. The strong gravity of the black hole, on the left, is pulling gas away from a companion star on the right. This gas forms a disk of hot gas around the black hole, and the wind is driven off this disk. Image credit: NASA/CXC/M.Weiss | › Full image and caption Once the fuel in the core of a high-mass star has completely burned out, the star collapses, sometimes producing a supernova explosion that releases an enormous amount of energy, detectable across the electromagnetic spectrum. If the star’s mass is more than about 25 times that of our Sun, a stellar-mass black hole can form. Intermediate-mass black holes have masses between about 100 and 100,000 times that of our Sun. Until recently, the existence of intermediate-mass black holes had only been theorized. NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory has identified several intermediate-mass black hole candidates by observing X-rays emitted by the gas surrounding the black hole. The Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory, or LIGO, funded by the National Science Foundation, detected the merger of two stellar-mass black holes with masses 65 and 85 times that of our Sun forming an intermediate-mass black hole of 142 solar masses. (Some of the mass was converted to energy and about nine solar masses were radiated away as gravitational waves.) Supermassive black holes contain between a million and a billion times as much mass as a stellar-mass black hole. Scientists are uncertain how supermassive black holes form, but one theory is that they result from the combining of stellar-mass black holes. This chart illustrates the relative masses of super-dense cosmic objects, ranging from white dwarfs to the supermassive black holes encased in the cores of most galaxies. | › Full image and caption Our local galactic center’s black hole, Sagittarius A*, is a supermassive black hole with a mass of about four million suns, which is fairly small for a supermassive black hole. NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope and other telescopes have determined that many galaxies have supermassive black holes at their center. This image shows the center of the Milky Way galaxy along with a closer view of Sagittarius A*. It was made by combining X-ray images from NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory (blue) and infrared images from the agency's Hubble Space Telescope (red and yellow). The inset shows Sgr A* in X-rays only, covering a region half a light year wide. Image credit: X-ray: NASA/UMass/D.Wang et al., IR: NASA/STScI | › Full image and caption Why They're Important Black holes hold allure for everyone from young children to professional astronomers. For astronomers, in particular, learning about Sagittarius A* is important because it provides insights into the formation of our galaxy and black holes themselves. Understanding the physics of black hole formation and growth, as well as their surrounding environments, gives us a window into the evolution of galaxies. Though Sagittarius A* is more than 26,000 light years (152 quadrillion miles) away from Earth, it is our closest supermassive black hole. Its formation and physical processes influence our galaxy as galactic matter continually crosses the event horizon, growing the black hole’s mass. Studying black holes also helps us further understand how space and time interact. As one gets closer to a black hole, the flow of time slows down compared with the flow of time far from the black hole. In fact, according to Einstein’s theory of general relativity, the flow of time slows near any massive object. But it takes an incredibly massive object, such as a black hole, to make an appreciable difference in the flow of time. There's still much to learn about what happens to time and space inside a black hole, so the more we study them, the more we can learn. How Scientists Imaged Sagittarius A* Black holes, though invisible to the human eye, can be detected by observing their effects on nearby space and matter. As a result of their enormous mass, black holes have extremely high gravity, which pulls in surrounding material at rapid speeds, causing this material to become very hot and emit X-rays. NASA Goddard 1.16M subscribers Mini-Jet Found Near Milky Way’s Supermassive Black Hole Watch later Share Watch on <div class="player-unavailable"><h1 class="message">An error occurred.</h1><div class="submessage"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zxqQ4G0NOhI" target="_blank">Try watching this video on www.youtube.com</a>, or enable JavaScript if it is disabled in your browser.</div></div> This video explains how Sagittarius A* appears to still have the remnants of a blowtorch-like jet dating back several thousand years. Credit: NASA | Watch on YouTube X-ray-detecting telescopes such as NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory can image the material spiraling into a black hole, revealing the black hole’s location. NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope can measure the speed of the gas and stars orbiting a point in space that may be a black hole. Scientists use these measurements of speed to determine the mass of the black hole. Hubble and Chandra are also able to image the effects of gravitational lensing, or the bending of light that results from the gravitational pull of black holes or other high-mass objects such as galaxies. The thin blue bull's-eye patterns in this Hubble Space Telescope image are called "Einstein rings." The blobs are giant elliptical galaxies roughly 2 to 4 billion light-years away. And the bull's-eye patterns are created as the light from galaxies twice as far away is distorted into circular shapes by the gravity of the giant elliptical galaxies. | › Full image and caption To directly image the matter surrounding a black hole, thus revealing the silhouette of the black hole itself, scientists from around the world collaborated to create the Event Horizon Telescope. The Event Horizon Telescope harnesses the combined power of numerous telescopes around the world that can detect radio-wave emissions from the sky to create a virtual telescope the size of Earth. caltech 159K subscribers How to Take a Picture of the Milky Way’s Black Hole Watch later Share Watch on <div class="player-unavailable"><h1 class="message">An error occurred.</h1><div class="submessage"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ol_SB5Zfv-Y" target="_blank">Try watching this video on www.youtube.com</a>, or enable JavaScript if it is disabled in your browser.</div></div> Narrated by Caltech’s Katie Bouman, this video explains how she and her fellow teammates at the Event Horizon Telescope project managed to take a picture of Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*), a beastly black hole lying 27,000 light-years away at the heart of our Milky Way galaxy. Credit: Caltech | Watch on YouTube In 2019, the team released the first image of a black hole's silhouette when they captured the glowing gasses surrounding the M87* galactic black hole nearly 53 million light-years (318 quintillion miles) away from Earth. The team then announced that one of their next endeavors was to image Sagittarius A*. Captured by the Event Horizon Telescope in 2019, this image of the the glowing gasses surrounding the M87* black hole, was the first image ever captured of a black hole. Image credit: Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration | + Expand image To make the newest observation, the Event Horizon Telescope focused its array of observing platforms on the center of the Milky Way. A telescope array is a group of telescopes arranged so that, as a set, they function similarly to one giant telescope. In addition to the telescopes used to acquire the M87* image, three additional radio telescopes joined the array to acquire the image of Sagittarius A*: the Greenland Telescope, the Kitt Peak 12-meter Telescope in Arizona, and the NOrthern Extended Millimeter Array, or NOEMA, in France. Chandra X-ray Observatory 37.8K subscribers Data Sonification: Galactic Center (Multiwavelength) Watch later Share Watch on <div class="player-unavailable"><h1 class="message">An error occurred.</h1><div class="submessage"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9YIERCD5PYY" target="_blank">Try watching this video on www.youtube.com</a>, or enable JavaScript if it is disabled in your browser.</div></div> This image of the center of our Milky Way galaxy representing an area roughly 400 light years across, has been translated into sound. Listen for the different instruments representing the data captured by the Chandra X-ray Observatory, Hubble Space Telescope, and Spitzer Space Telescope. The Hubble data outline energetic regions where stars are being born, while Spitzer's data captures glowing clouds of dust containing complex structures. X-rays from Chandra reveal gas heated to millions of degrees from stellar explosions and outflows from Sagittarius A*. Credit: Chandra X-ray Observatory | Watch on YouTube The distance from the center of Sagittarius A* to its event horizon, a measurement known as the Schwarzschild radius, is enormous at seven million miles (12,000,000 kilometers or 0.08 astronomical units). But its apparent size when viewed from Earth is tiny because it is so far away. The apparent Schwarzschild radius for Sagittarius A* is 10 microarcseconds, about the angular size of a large blueberry on the Moon. Acquiring a good image of a large object that appears tiny when viewed from Earth requires a telescope with extraordinarily fine resolution, or the ability to detect the smallest possible details in an image. The better the resolution, the better the image and the more detail the image will show. Even the best individual telescopes or array of telescopes at one location do not have a good enough resolution to image Sagittarius A*. This image captured by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope shows the star-studded center of the Milky Way towards the constellation of Sagittarius. Even though you can't see our galaxy's central black hole directly, you might be able to pinpoint its location based on what you've learned about black holes thusfar. Image credit: NASA, ESA, and G. Brammer | › Full image and caption The addition of the 12-meter Greenland Telescope, though a relatively small instrument, widened the diameter, or aperture, of the Event Horizon Telescope to nearly the diameter of Earth. And NOEMA – itself an array of twelve 15-meter antennas with maximum separation of 2,500 feet (760 meters) – helped further increase the Event Horizon Telescope’s light-gathering capacity. Altogether, when combined into the mighty Event Horizon Telescope, the virtual array obtained an image of Sagittarius A* spanning about 50 microarcseconds, or about 1/13th of a billionth the span of the night sky. Sagittarius A* is more than 26,000 light years (152 quadrillion miles) away from Earth and has the mass of 4 million suns. Image credit: Event Horizon Telescope | › Full image and caption While the Event Horizon Telescope was busy capturing the stunning radio image of Sagittarius A*, an additional worldwide contingent of astronomical observatories was also focused on the black hole and the region surrounding it. The aim of the team, known as the Event Horizon Telescope Multiwavelength Science Working Group, was to observe the black hole in other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum beyond radio. As part of the effort, X-ray data were collected by NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory, Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope (NuSTAR), and Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory, additional radio data were collected by the East Asian Very Long-Baseline Interferometer (VLBI) network and the Global 3 millimeter VLBI array, and infrared data were collected by the European Southern Observatory’s Very Large Telescope. The data from these multiple platforms will allow scientists to continue building their understanding of the behavior of Sagittarius A* and to refine their models of black holes in general. The data collected from these multiwavelength observations are crucial to the study of black holes, such as the Chandra data revealing how quickly material falls in toward the disk of hot gas orbiting the black hole’s event horizon. Data such as these will hopefully help scientists better understand black hole accretion, or the process by which black holes grow.

Teach It Check out these resources to bring the real-life STEM of black holes into your teaching, plus learn about opportunities to involve students in real astronomy research. Explore More Articles Educator Guides Student Activities Check out these related resources for students from NASA’s Space Place ¥ What is a Black Hole? Across the NASA-Verse ¥ Educator Guide: Black Hole Math ¥ NASA/IPAC TeacherArchive Research Program ¥ Student Resources: Chandra ¥ Articles: Hubble - Black Holes ¥ Audio: Sonification of the Milky Way galactic center ¥ Audio: Sonification of the M87 black hole ¥ Interactive: Sagittarius A* ¥ Videos: Hubble - Black Holes ¥ Website: NASA Science - Black Holes ¥ Download: A Galaxy Full of Black Holes Presentation ¥ Expert Talk: Imaging a Black Hole Lecture ¥ Website: NASA - Black Holes ¥ Article: Black Hole Image Makes History ¥ Graphic: Anatomy of a Black Hole TAGS: Black hole, Milky Way, galaxy, universe, stars, teachers, educators, lessons, Teachable Moments, K-12, science ABOUT THE AUTHOR Ota Lutz, STEM Elementary and Secondary Education Specialist, NASA/JPL Edu Ota Lutz is a STEM elementary and secondary education specialist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. When she’s not writing new lessons or teaching, she’s probably cooking something delicious, volunteering in the community, or dreaming about where she will travel next.

Venomous Sea Snakes That Charge Divers May Just Be Looking for Love

A new study suggests apparent attacks are actually fleeting cases of mistaken identity

smithsonianmag.com

Numerous scuba divers in places like Australia’s imperiled Great Barrier Reefhave reported what they interpreted as unprovoked attacks from venomous sea snakes, especially the olive sea snake which can reach lengths of around six feet. Divers say the snakes, which breathe air but spend their entire lives in the ocean, sometimes come hurtling out of the blue swimming in rapid zig-zags straight at the person. These encounters almost never result in recreational divers getting bitten, but the apparent aggression from animals packing deadly neurotoxic venom is enough to alarm most who experience it firsthand.

Now, new research reveals that these charging sea serpents likely harbor no malice toward the humans visiting their home. Instead, the paper, published today in the journal Scientific Reports, suggests these underwater dust ups are actually cases of mistaken identity, with the understandably shaken divers having been caught in the crossfire of the sea snake’s urgent quest to find love during the winter mating season.

“Wild animals don’t attack people without good reason,” says Rick Shine, evolutionary biologist at Macquarie University in Australia and the study’s senior author. “Snakes on land almost never attack people but there were all these stories about sea snakes doing it. Why the hell would a sea snake race towards a person underwater?”

Shine’s co-author Tim Lynch, a scientist with Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, happened to be sitting on an unpublished data set with the potential to answer that very question. Back in 1994, Lynch had spent 250 hours scuba diving around the Keppel Islands in the southern Great Barrier Reef to study olive sea snake behavior for his PhD thesis. Lynch would record how many snakes he encountered as well as whether they approached him and for how long within individual 30-minute periods.

Shine recalls reviewing the completed thesis with interest but the results weren’t published in a peer-reviewed journal at the time. Then, more than 20 years later when the Covid-19 pandemic grounded virtually all field research, Shine approached Lynch about dusting off his data and giving it a fresh analysis.

Shine and Lynch found that out of 158 encounters, 74 included the snake approaching the diver and that these interactions were more common during the olive sea snake’s mating season between May and August. Only 13 of these interactions involved full on charges towards the diver. The onrushing snakes were split almost fifty-fifty by sex, with seven males and six females comprising the group.

At the time, Lynch made some crucial observations about the circumstances of these apparent moments of aggression that ultimately helped him and Shine clarify what might be occurring.

First, all the charges occurred in the thick of the sea snakes’ breeding season. Second, all the charges by male snakes occurred right after the male had been squaring up with a rival male or if the male snake had lost track of a female he had been chasing around the reef in hopes of mating with her. Some of these male snakes even appeared to be getting slightly amorous with Lynch’s flippers—coiling around his fins the way sea snakes do each other during courtship. Finally, all the female snakes that charged Lynch underwater were being chased by hopeful male snakes.

Shine explains that these details, combined with prior research showing that olive sea snakes likely can’t see that well underwater, suggest that the jarring interactions between divers and sea snakes are most likely cases of mistaken identity.

“Male sea snakes have trouble locating females in the first place,” says Shine. “And if the girl runs away and the boy loses touch with her, he might go hurtling over towards any shape he sees in the water. Then once the snake gets there it takes him a little while to realize the large object isn’t the girl he was pursuing.”

In the case of females being chased by males, the divers might have looked like a good place to take refuge such as a hunk of coral. Male sea snakes can be quite persistent, so fleeing for cover is sometimes a female’s best option to ditch an undesirable suitor.

“People almost universally interpreted these behaviors as aggression,” says Shine. “Snakes are often seen as these malevolent beings intent on mayhem, but in this case really they’re just looking for love.”

Lynch and Shine say their findings offer practical information for scuba divers who might encounter olive sea snakes or even other species of sea snakes. “Sea snakes can swim faster than you, so it’s a complete waste of time to try to swim away,” says Shine. “Don’t try to hit the snake or fend it off because that could upset it. Just give the snake a chance to figure out who you are and once they do they will likely head off.”

Despite the fact that bites from sea snakes are rare among divers, Vinay Udyawer, a sea snake researcher at the Australian Institute of Marine Science who was not involved in the study, says these findings provide “very useful information for recreational divers that can help minimize the chances of a negative interaction.”

Providing an explanation for the behavior and clear instructions might also help divers override what for some remains a reflexive fear of a potentially dangerous animal moving rapidly in their direction.

“I know now from enough time spent with snakes that they bear no ill will towards me but it’s one thing to know that and it’s another to feel it when a snake comes racing towards you,” says Shine. “But our work shows you just need to hang in there, stay calm and let the snake work out that you’re not a sea snake or a piece of coral.”